Syed Manzoor ul Hassan
In Surah An-Nahl (16), verse 90, the prohibitions within the sphere of ethics are stated in principle. These consist of three matters: indecency (fuḥshāʾ), wrongdoing (munkar), and transgression (baghy). It is stated:
اِنَّ اللّٰہَ یَاۡمُرُ بِالۡعَدۡلِ وَ الۡاِحۡسَانِ وَ اِیۡتَآیِٔ ذِی الۡقُرۡبٰی وَ یَنۡہٰی عَنِ الۡفَحۡشَآءِ وَ الۡمُنۡکَرِ وَ الۡبَغۡیِ ۚ یَعِظُکُمۡ لَعَلَّکُمۡ تَذَکَّرُوۡنَ ﴿۹۰﴾
Indeed, Allah commands justice, excellence, and giving to relatives, and He forbids indecency, wrongdoing, and transgression. He admonishes you so that you may take heed.
In Surah Al-Araf (7), verse 33, these same matters are also declared unlawful. It is stated:
قُلۡ اِنَّمَا حَرَّمَ رَبِّیَ الۡفَوَاحِشَ مَا ظَہَرَ مِنۡہَا وَ مَا بَطَنَ وَ الۡاِثۡمَ وَ الۡبَغۡیَ بِغَیۡرِ الۡحَقِّ وَ اَنۡ تُشۡرِکُوۡا بِاللّٰہِ مَا لَمۡ یُنَزِّلۡ بِہٖ سُلۡطٰنًا وَّ اَنۡ تَقُوۡلُوۡا عَلَی اللّٰہِ مَا لَا تَعۡلَمُوۡنَ
Say: My Lord has only forbidden immoralities, whether open or hidden, and injustice and wrongful transgression, and that you associate with Allah anything for which He has sent down no authority, and that you attribute to Allah what you do not know.
When the verse of Al-Araf is examined in comparison with the directive mentioned above in An-Nahl, two differences become evident. First, in place of wrongdoing (munkar), the word ‘ithm’ (sin) has been used. Second, two additional prohibitions have been added: shirk and religious innovation. The purpose of choosing the word ‘ithm’ instead of munkar’ is to particularize the meaning of ‘violation of rights.’ If moral evils, sins, and wrongdoings are classified into categories, only three types emerge: first, those evils that are of the nature of indecency; second, those that manifest oppression and injustice; and third, those that involve the usurpation of the rights of others. All moral vices fall within these three categories, and no fourth category can reasonably be conceived. By employing the word ‘ithm’ in place of ‘munkar’, the Quran has clarified that among the three forms of wrongdoing declared unlawful, the third category—besides immoralities and wrongful transgression—is the violation of rights.1 The respected teacher, Javed Ahmed Ghamidi, writes:
… By using the word ‘ithm’ at another place, the Quran has clarified that it refers here to those acts through which the rights of others are violated.2 (Al-Bayan, 3/42)
As for the two additional prohibitions mentioned in Surah Al-Araf—namely polytheism and religious innovation—their nature is not that of independent categories. Rather, they are branches of the previously mentioned prohibitions, singled out because of their extraordinary gravity. Regarding the first, the words ‘an tushriku billah’ (that you associate partners with Allah) are used. This is a branch of ‘ithm’, that is, violation of rights. Polytheism constitutes an explicit violation of the rights of Allah Almighty, for it is exclusively His right to be acknowledged as the Deity, the true object of worship, and the Absolute Sovereign. If a person associates anyone with Him in His essence or attributes, he commits the crime of usurping His rights. Moreover, this also amounts to fabrication against Allah; therefore, it fully embodies the meaning of ‘baghy’, that is, wrongful transgression.
For the second matter, the words ‘أَنْ تَقُولُوا عَلَى اللهِ مَا لَا تَعْلَمُونَ ’ (that you attribute to Allah what you do not know) are used. This signifies fabricating lies about Allah. Such an act constitutes bidah, that is, introducing additions into religion, and therefore amounts to open rebellion before Allah Almighty. Consequently, it falls under the category of ‘baghy’.
The primary reason for presenting these two applications—shirk and bidah—as distinct prohibitions is their exceptional heinousness. Alongside this, a secondary reason is that, in terms of application, both function as categories themselves. This means that, like immoralities, violation of rights, and wrongful transgression, they are also principled headings under which innumerable unlawful acts take shape. For example, angel-worship, star-worship, ancestor-worship, priest-worship, idol-worship, grave-worship, and belief in al-jibt (magic, sorcery) and al-taghut (Satan) are among many polytheistic practices that fall within the category of shirk.
- In Surah al-Nahl and Surah al-Araf, the words ‘munkar’ (evil/wrong) and ‘ithm’ (sin), when used in their unqualified and independent sense, denote generality. That is, they refer to all forms of wrongdoing that the innate human moral sense recognizes as evil. In the present context, however, these words occur in conjunction with ‘fuḥshāʾ’ (indecency) and ‘baghy’ (transgression), which themselves are included among the munkarat and atham. Therefore, the meaning of generality cannot be derived from them here. Rather, in this context they must be understood as referring to the third category of moral wrongdoing—namely, the violation or usurpation of rights.
- The word ‘ithm’ originally carries the sense of ta akhkhur—that is, ‘lagging behind’ or ‘falling behind.’ Thus, ‘athimah’ is used for a she-camel that falls behind because of exhaustion. From this, the term came to be used for falling short in the discharge of rights, whether they are the rights of God or the rights of human beings. In this sense, it stands in opposition to ‘birr’, whose primary meaning is the fulfillment of rights. The word ‘ithm’ is also used in conjunction with ‘udwan’, because in matters pertaining to rights, sin is of two kinds: one consisting of negligence or the failure to fulfill rights, and the other consisting of aggression and transgression. The first type is denoted by the word ‘ithm’, while the second is denoted by udwan’. In the verse under discussion (al-Baqarah 2:182), this word occurs together with ‘janaf’. As has already been explained, ‘janaf’ signifies partiality or bias. In contrast to it, the most appropriate meaning of ‘ithm’ in this context would be the violation or usurpation of rights. (Tadabbur-i Qurʾan, 1/441)