It is true that on three sides the sea, and on one side the Nafud Desert, had from ancient times kept the Arabian Peninsula cut off; however, as we have already written, in a broader perspective this peninsula also presents a paradox. It played an important intermediary role in transmitting the influences of Asia, Africa, and Europe to one another, and obviously, while doing so, this land itself could not remain entirely untouched by the effects of diverse cultures. Many reflections of this basic paradox become apparent when reading the history of ancient Arabia. One of these is that although a large majority of Arabs were living far from civilization, leading nomadic and desert lives, at the same time Arab society, as a whole, was connected to and influenced in many ways by the greatest civilizations of that era. In short, it would not be correct to imagine that a land whose borders touched those of two great powers of the time—Iran and Rome—and adjacent to which, in earlier periods, the famous civilizations of the Assyrians, Babylonians, and Chaldeans had flourished and the Code of Hammurabi had been formulated, would have had an intellectual life completely detached from these external influences. The reality is that Arabic literature and Arab life were not free from foreign influences.
It is almost impossible to prepare a complete list of all the means through which one nation absorbs influences from others, because their details are extremely subtle; however, some of these means are very prominent. The Arabs’ contact with other nations and their receptivity to foreign cultures was mainly through three channels:
(1) THE STATES OF HIRA AND GHASSAN
These were, respectively, sources of the penetration of Iranian and Roman cultures, and they affected Arab society in several ways. A detailed discussion of them follows in later pages.
(2) TRADE
The land of Arabia has been an important commercial thoroughfare since the most ancient times. Initially, when the people of Yemen were at their height, they controlled the reins of trade. Later, when they declined, trade passed into the hands of the people of Hijaz. The central region of the peninsula is largely desert, so the trade routes were spread along its edges. One route came from Hadramawt toward the Red Sea, passed through Hijaz, and went on to Syria. Another ran from Hadramawt in the opposite direction, through Oman and Bahrain, reaching as far as Tyre. Frankincense and similar goods were exported from Dhofar beyond Arabia, while various imports reached Yemen from outside. In addition, goods from India—such as rare animals like langurs and peacocks—used to travel overland through Arabia to the Pharaohs of Egypt.
As mentioned above, after Yemen, control of trade came into the hands of the people of Hijaz. Makkah lay roughly at the midpoint of the trade route from Yemen to Syria and was also an important stopping place because of the well of Zamzam. Moreover, the Haram of the Ka‘bah possessed religious sanctity; therefore, the Quraysh, who were the leading people there, gained special advantages in commerce—an indication of which is also found in the Quran. The merchants of Quraysh would also take the trade goods of Abyssinia to the markets of Syria.
Their caravans were very grand, and naturally included, for purposes of interpretation, individuals who were familiar with foreign languages. Moreover, the chosen minds of Arabia—such as Abu Sufyan, Makhrema ibn Nawfal, and ‘Amr ibn al-‘As—were included in these caravans, people who possessed the ability to observe foreign cultures with discernment. On this very trade route, the Prophet Muhammad [pbuh] also traveled to Syria, first at the age of twelve with his uncle Abu Talib, and later at the age of twenty-five in connection with the wealth of Khadijah (RA).
The desert-dwelling tribes were not entirely detached from these commercial activities either. To remain safe from plunder and to find the way, trading caravans would hire these tribes as guides or guards. Despite being illiterate and accustomed to raiding, these people were trustworthy in the sense that they were firm to their word and did not violate their agreements. There are even examples where, if due to the attack of a more powerful tribe they found themselves unable to protect the caravan, they would return the wages they had taken. In short, because of these commercial activities, the constant interaction of Arabs with other nations—and with one another—left the imprint of foreign cultures on their intellectual life. The Persian, Roman, Egyptian, and Abyssinian loanwords found in Arabic also entered the language partly due to these commercial contacts.
(3) JUDAISM AND CHRISTIANITY
The third important channel through which foreign cultures entered Arabia was Judaism and Christianity. Several centuries before the advent of Islam, some Jews came and settled here from Alexandria and Rome, and later, under their influence, some Arab tribes also adopted Judaism. Thus, Tayma, Fadak, Khaybar, Wadi al-Qura, and above all Yathrib became centers of the Jews. Banu Nadir, Banu Qaynuqa‘, and Banu Qurayzah were well- known Jewish tribes. The Jews brought with them the seeds of the philosophical cultures of Alexandria and Rome, and since both Rome and Alexandria were heirs to Greek culture, a reflection of Hellenism was also indirectly present in their social life. Besides agriculture, these people were skilled in certain industries such as weapon-making, blacksmithing, and goldsmithing. Through the mediation of the Jews, lengthy traditions and interpretations concerning beliefs related to the creation of the world, life after death, reckoning, and the balance gained currency in ancient Arab society—traditions that later also found their way into Islamic literature. Religious terms such as Hell, Iblis, and Satan also first became known to the Arabs through the mediation of the Jews.
Similarly, Christianity represented Abyssinian, Roman, and Greek influences among the Arabs. Among the various Christian sects, the Jacobite and Nestorian sects were prominent in Arabia; accordingly, Nestorian beliefs were found in Hira, and Jacobite beliefs in Ghassan. The greatest center of Christianity was Najran. These people lived a highly organized life. “Sayyid,” “Aqib,” and “Usquf” were, respectively, the titles of the leaders responsible for their external, internal, and religious affairs. They were skilled in making silk garments and weapons. The Yemeni cloaks and garments frequently mentioned in Arabic literature are attributed to them. It is reported that the famous orator Quss ibn Sa‘idah was the bishop of Najran.
Under the influence of Christianity, a tendency arose among the Arabs to reflect on the phenomena of the universe and to live an ascetic life. Thus, it is narrated about Hanzalah al-Ta’i that he left his tribe, established a monastery, and died there in seclusion. Similar reports are found about Quss ibn Sa‘idah—that he lived in desolate places, ate very little, and was familiar with wild animals. Some similar accounts are also transmitted about ‘Adi ibn Zayd and Nu‘man, the king of Hira. In the poetry of Umayyah ibn Abi al-Salt, ‘Adi ibn Zayd, and Quss ibn Sa‘idah as well, the element of asceticism and monasticism is prominent.
The addition of certain words and expressions to the Arabic language also occurred through Christian tendencies. According to some reports, the phrase “amma ba‘d” was first used by Quss ibn Sa‘idah, and “bismik Allahumma” by Umayyah ibn Abi al-Salt. In Umayyah’s poetry, some unfamiliar words are also found that he took from ancient books; for example, he used the words “sulṭiṭ” and “taghrur” for God.
[To be continued]